Every year, thousands of people escape war, poverty, and climate change, embarking on dangerous journeys across Africa’s deserts to reach the northern coast. Many attempt to cross the Mediterranean Sea to Europe in search of a better life. The Missing Migrants Project has documented over 63,000 deaths on migration routes in the past decade, with 44% resulting from drowning in the Mediterranean. In 2023, the project recorded a record number of 8,542 deaths or disappearances, which marks a 20% increase compared to 2022.
Over the past decade, conflicts have escalated, resulting in a steady increase in the number of displaced individuals, which reached 114 million. L. This rise has also coincided with growing irregular migration rates as people seek safety from wars and violence. In response, European countries have focused on reducing irregular migration through security measures and financial agreements with transit countries. Recently, the European Union signed cooperation agreements with several North African nations, including Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya, aimed at stopping irregular migration and preventing migrants from reaching European shores. However, these agreements may have contributed to worsening conditions for migrants in these countries, exposing them to increased violence and harassment. The absence of safe and official routes to Europe remains a significant issue.
“Without sufficient access to safety, smugglers will continue to exploit vulnerable and desperate individuals, or these individuals may be compelled to take drastic measures to cross borders,” says Matthew Reynolds, a UNHCR representative in the United States and the Caribbean. Among those undertaking these journeys are asylum seekers and refugees fleeing violence, persecution, and human rights abuses, as well as migrants, victims of trafficking, and others, according to Reynolds.
In recent years, technological advances have given smuggling networks ample opportunity to develop new methods to make huge profits while avoiding legal oversight. Migrant smuggling networks have witnessed a remarkable shift towards “digital platforms,” and smugglers have begun to rely heavily on social media platforms, especially Facebook, to promote their services.
Analysis of Facebook group activity related to irregular migration in North Africa.
The Sodaletica team at Beam Reports noted the increasing activity of Facebook groups related to irregular migration in North Africa and addressed their study, focusing on following trends and interactions within these groups. Beam team was able to monitor 11 groups on Facebook dedicated to irregular migration, with a total of more than 1,642,000 members. However, Beam Reports limited the monitoring to open and Arabic-speaking groups in Libya, Sudan, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria, in addition to following up the accounts of (16) smugglers, including eight Sudanese smugglers, three Moroccans, Egyptian smugglers, Libyan smugglers, and a Syrian smuggler.
The study focused on analyzing specific groups to understand their methods of operation, the number of members they have, and the countries to which these members belong. Additionally, the team explored the irregular migration pathways associated with these groups. They conducted a thorough analysis of the content published within a selected number of groups to better understand the strategies used by smugglers to promote their journeys, as well as the language and terminology featured in this content. Furthermore, the Beam team examined the interactions between smugglers and those seeking their services while also monitoring the market dynamics of “supply and demand” within these groups.
First: Monitoring groups linked to Libya
The Beam team spotted two groups in Sudan and Egypt dedicated to traveling to Libya and then to Greece or Italy.
The first group: It was The first group, Established in December 2023 under the name «Travel to Italy,» its membership reached more than (29) thousand members in a short period, with an average of (89) new members each week. Activity in this group is relatively weak compared to the other observed groups, with its members publishing an average of eight posts per day.
After analyzing the group’s content, it was determined that its activities are primarily focused in Egypt, where smugglers utilize the group as a platform to showcase their services to the public in three main ways:
- Direct service offer: In this case, the smuggler advertises a trip to Italy or Greece, providing a phone number for direct communication (Figure No. 1).
- Viewing the Service as a “Tourist Trip”: In this scenario, the smuggler promotes a trip to Greece as a “tourist trip.” This approach is used to bypass Facebook’s algorithms, which remove content related to offers and requests for smuggling trips (Figure 2)
- Display the service in the comments: In this case, when members express their desire to travel to Libya or Italy, the smugglers comment on their posts and invite them to communicate with them in the special mail (Figure No. 3).
The Beam team observed that smugglers and activists involved in irregular migration are aware of Facebook’s content monitoring policies. As a result, these groups have directives that discourage the use of specific terms, such as “payment after arrival” and “smuggling,” in their posts and comments (see Figure No. 4).
This group is managed by two individuals, one of whom uses a fake account that appears to have been created specifically to oversee groups focused on smuggling. Analysis of this account reveals that it manages three different groups, all dedicated to irregular migration. The previously analyzed group is the newest and smallest, having been established in December 2023, and it currently has approximately 29,000 members.
The largest group, established in January 2022, has about 260.5 thousand members (Figure No. 5). This analysis raises the possibility that these networks are run by the people themselves. However, it is important to note that the joint organization of groups does not necessarily mean that these networks operate within the same framework or activity in irregular migration. There may be differences in roles or ways of working, so caution should be exercised when concluding the relationship between these groups.
The second group: The second group was established in June 2021 under the name “Access to Libya through the Triangle,” the activity of this group is concentrated in Sudan. The group has about (62) thousand members, with a significant increase in the number of new members, at a rate of (3,551) members per week, which shows an increase in the movement of the group in the recent period. This group enjoys a high level of interaction, with about (57) publications published daily, with a total of (1,450) publications per week.
The Beam team identified notable differences in how smugglers communicate with individuals seeking travel from Sudan. Beyond simply offering their services in the primary group, smugglers use separate platforms to communicate directly with clients. Travelers are directed to other groups on Telegram and WhatsApp (see Figures 6 and 7), which limits the spread of contact information within the main group. This approach reduces the visibility of contact numbers in the primary group and potentially decreases the risk of detection.
The team also observed that posts in this group cover a broader range of topics beyond just travel requests or smuggling offers. Members frequently inquire about road conditions and job opportunities in Libya and even seek travel companions. Additionally, they exchange practical advice on essential food supplies, necessary funds, and recommended destinations after arriving in Libya. This activity suggests that coordination among travelers often takes place on the ground in Sudan, as posts reveal known smuggling points and transport vehicles located in markets and familiar gathering spots (see Figure 8).
The Beam team also noted that users in this group rarely employ terms directly related to smuggling. Instead, they favor local terms like “movers,” “rogues,” and “travelers,” which are commonly used in everyday language. This linguistic choice likely makes it harder for Facebook’s algorithms to identify smuggling-related content. Unlike the previous group, there seems to be no explicit guidance on which terms to use when offering or requesting services, suggesting that the avoidance of smuggling-related terms may stem from habitual language use rather than an organized strategy.
Second: Monitoring groups linked to Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria
The beam team monitored four groups dedicated to irregular migration through Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria:
- The first group was established in June 2021 under the name “Jingo Morocco” and was later renamed “Jingo Morocco Algeria and Tunisia.” This group has over 46,000 members, with an average of 960 new members joining each week, indicating recent membership growth. It remains relatively active, with around 16 posts daily, totaling approximately 1,300 posts per week.
- The second group, originally named “Sambak Bass,” was established in March 2022. In Sudanese slang, “Sambak” refers to informal travel routes, often indicating sea journeys to Europe. The group’s name was later changed to “Al-Ghurba.” Despite being relatively new, this group has amassed 652,000 members. However, the rate of new members joining has dropped significantly to around 77 per week. Compared to the first group, its activity is lower, with an average of eight posts per day despite the large membership base.
- The third group, established in July 2023 under the name “Tunisia Jingo Explosions,” has over 24,000 members, with a very low growth rate of only two new members per week. This group is the least active among those monitored, with an average of just one post per day. The Beam team noted that in this group, the term “explosions” is used to describe irregular migration from Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria to Europe.
These groups utilize a specialized language among Sudanese individuals seeking to migrate to Europe through irregular routes, commonly referring to themselves as “Jingo.” The term “Jingo,” originally associated with seasonal workers in agriculture, has been repurposed to describe those wishing to migrate by sea to Europe. The team observed that this term is more frequently used to refer to migrants from Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria compared to those from Libya. Additionally, the term “explosions” is used synonymously with “sambak” to describe irregular migration processes in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. An
Analysis of the content from the three groups reveals that many posts do not directly address irregular migration. Instead, they cover various topics. Posts that do discuss irregular migration are primarily focused on inquiries about the best migration routes, success stories of individuals who have reached Europe, and offers of services from smugglers.
- The group was initially founded on November 17, 2023, under the name “Tunisia Green Jingo,” later rebranded as “Jingo Earth’s Nails – Tunisian Sambac.” With over 84,000 members and a rapid growth rate of around 1,673 new members weekly, its primary focus is to assist Sudanese individuals aiming to migrate to Europe by sea. Despite its large membership, the group’s activity remains relatively low, averaging 26 posts per month during the research period.
In their content analysis of the group, the Beam team observed a unique type of publication. The group administrator, known as “the Joker,” periodically shares videos documenting successful irregular migration journeys from Libya or Morocco to Italy (Figure 9).
In addition to the videos, the group manager regularly publishes updated information on the locations of rescue ships operating in the Mediterranean. This includes details such as the names of the ships, their identification numbers, the number of migrants rescued, their nationalities, the landing areas, and the cities from which they departed (see photos 10 and 11).
Through extensive research on irregular migration routes, it was discovered that transactions with smugglers often occur in a group on WhatsApp called “Jingo Morocco Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya.” This group was created in August 2024 and currently has approximately 190 members. The group has specific rules: discussions unrelated to travel topics are prohibited, and non-Sudanese individuals are not allowed to join. These groups serve multiple purposes across three main areas:
- Exchange of Information: Group members share important details about travel between countries and cities, including prices, travel experiences, living costs, and general conditions in various cities. They also discuss deportations carried out by security authorities. Additionally, they organize regular conference calls to update each other on their current locations (as illustrated in Figure No. 12).
- Trip coordination: Trip Coordination: Share information about upcoming trips, including the number of trips and their departure points. The term “explosions” refers to the new journey. Travelers who wish to embark on a trip should provide details about their locations and the routes they plan to take to reach the starting point (see Figure No. 13).
- Exchange of smugglers’ numbers and prices: Group members share information about smugglers’ contacts and current flight prices (see Figure No. 14). Additionally, they exchange details about past trips and discuss the best times and seasons to travel. Travel dates are coordinated with the locations and coordinates of rescue ships in the Mediterranean. The presence of a high number of rescue ships increases the chances of reaching the shores of Italy, a primary destination for many migrants (see Figure No. 15).
Third: Monitoring the group associated with Egypt
The beam team monitored a group focused on irregular migration to Egypt. This route is relatively new and emerged due to the significant challenges faced by Sudanese individuals trying to enter Egypt, which led to the development of this pathway.
The group was established in January 2024 under the name “Travel to Egypt through the Desert.” It currently has approximately 5,600 members, with a strong growth rate of about 681 new members joining each week. The level of interaction within this group is high due to its size, with an average of 32 posts made daily, totaling around 694 posts each week.
Upon analyzing the content of the posts in the group, they can be divided into three main categories:
- Travel offers in Egypt have seen smugglers providing various services to stand out from their competitors in Libya. What sets these smugglers apart is their additional promotional offerings, including New, air-conditioned vehicles, Discounts for families and groups, Hotel delivery services, Starlink Internet access during the journey, and Provision of an Egyptian SIM card upon arrival. This indicates a high level of competition and significant demand on this route, compelling smugglers to enhance their services to attract customers (Figures 16 and 17).
- Offers for Returning to Sudan from Egypt: The group also includes options for those who wish to return from Egypt to Sudan. Individuals who entered Egypt through smuggling cannot use regular routes to return because they lack an “entry stamp.” This situation forces some to go back by the same dangerous route they used to enter (see Figure 18).
- Inquiries and information on the situation in Egypt: The group seeks to ask questions regarding UNHCR procedures in Egypt, rental prices, and potential risks related to traveling. Additionally, they review other services, such as visa applications for Egypt and scheduling appointments with UNHCR in the country.
These groups have transitioned from providing smuggling services to Egypt to exploring new markets for alternative services. This shift is largely driven by the increasing challenges in obtaining services from Sudanese and Egyptian institutions, making it nearly impossible for some individuals to access what they need.
Content Policy
Facebook’s Community Standards Policy explains how the platform deals with issues of human exploitation and smuggling and outlines the procedures for removing content related to these activities. Facebook says in its content policies that it “prohibits the publication of any content that contributes to or facilitates the recruitment of people for human trafficking, whether through sexual exploitation, sale of children, forced marriage, labor exploitation, or any other form of exploitation.” The policy also prohibits the publication of content that offers to facilitate or solicit human smuggling services, except for content that aims to condemn or promote awareness of human trafficking and human smuggling issues or news reports that address these issues.
Facebook notifies users with alerts when they search for terms that may be related to people smuggling. For instance, if a user searches for words like “Sembac” (as shown in Figure 19) or “smuggling” (as shown in Figure 20), an alert will appear. This alert informs the user that the term may be associated with human smuggling and advises caution when continuing to search for these terms (as illustrated in Figure 21).
Despite efforts, Facebook has struggled to limit the spread of groups and pages that offer smuggling services. An investigation by the Digital Transparency Project in 2021 highlighted the platform’s failure to effectively censor content that violates its policies. The report found that human smugglers were using Facebook to promote their cross-border services, and alarmingly, the platform’s algorithms sometimes recommended smuggler pages to users. The investigation suggested that Facebook might have been aware of these illegal activities but “did not take sufficient measures to curb them”
The investigation revealed many Facebook pages offering border crossing services, as smugglers openly use clear phrases without attempting to conceal their intentions.
The investigation reveals that smugglers use enticing advertisements to draw migrants into cross-border smuggling trips, often promising a “safe and fast” journey. These ads frequently include photos or videos showcasing the route or means of transport, all aimed at building trust with potential migrants. However, these journeys frequently lead to severe hardships, where migrants may face exploitation, detention, or, in tragic cases, death
